Dictionary of sports and games terminology

Introduction Any word or phrase in bold print in an entry serves as a cross-reference to its own entry in its alphabetical place. Mention of a game at the beginning of an entry describing a sport refers to the sport in question. Thus the denition of badminton begins a game for two or four people, so that the game is badminton. The same applies in entries such as aquabobbing, categorized as a type of water skiing, which begins a form of the sport, so that the sport is water skiing. On the whole, the text of an entry aims not to repeat the name of the sport in which the word or phrase is used. Where an entry describes an action carried out by the relevant sports participant, the pronoun he is used for both sexes in the interest of brevity and simplicity. This will nine times out of ten be appropriate anyway for a male-dominated sport, such as cricket or rugby union, but for sake of consistency the usage is also applied to sports in which women are prominent participants, such as gymnastics or tennis. It would unusually pedantic to have he or she every time. A number of entries append additional information or an etymology in square brackets. Thus the badminton entry explains how the game came to be so named, and the entry for caddie gives the origin of the word. 4 Some sports writing uses American spellings for American sports, such as baseball, and British spelling for British sports, such as cricket. But such a system presents difculties, since one has to choose which to use for an international sport such as tennis. In the present book, the spelling generally used is American rather than British, even for predominantly British sports. In some cases, however, where both a British and an American spelling exist for a headword, the British spelling may appear as a cross-reference, so that centre cross-refers to center. Headwords followed by an exclamation point represent a spoken command, such as action! in wrestling, break! in boxing, easy! in rowing, or mush! in sled-dog racing. Appendix and Bibliography The Appendix is devoted to a selection of the better-known standard abbreviations for the titles of sports ruling bodies and administrative organizations. The Bibliography lists the books and publications consulted both for denitions of sporting terms and for the rules and origins of the sports themselves. Each title has an appended description in square brackets. www.Atibook.ir THE DICTIONARY across the at (horse racing) at racing under Jockey Club rules, as distinct from over the sticks acting half-back (rugby league) the player, often the hooker, who picks the ball up after a playthe-ball action! (wrestling) the command by the referee to start wrestling action replay ( general ) an instant televised repeat of an important or disputed incident in a match, as a goal in association football or a catch in cricket ad court (tennis) short form of advantage court adaptive rowing (rowing) rowing or sculling in boats that have been adapted for people with physical limitations or disabilities added money (horse racing) extra money added to the basic stakes awarded to the winner added time ( general ) time added to the normal length of time for a match, as injury time in association football Addicks (association football ) nickname of the English club Charlton Athletic [corruption of Athletic] additional assistant referee (association football ) one of two extra assistant referees behind each goal who help the referee with decisions relating to the goal line, set pieces, and play in the penalty area address the ball (golf ) to take up a stance in order to strike the ball Admirals Cup (sailing) a biennial series of races off the south coast of England for national teams of three boats each, culminating in the Fastnet Cup [established in 1957 by the Royal Ocean Racing Club, whose admiral presents the trophy] adolph (trampolining) a forward somersault with three and a half twists [so called for its similarity to a rudolph] advantage (rugby league) a period of time allowed by the referee after an infringement to determine whether to award the opposing team a AAA (athletics) abbreviation of Amateur Athletic Association abaft (sailing) behind the boat A-bars (gymnastics) short form of asymmetric bars aboard (baseball ) another term for on base; (equestrianism, horse racing) another term for on board abseil (mountaineering) the descent of a rock face on a xed rope using braking and sliding mechanisms [German Abseil, from ab, down, and Seil, rope] abseiling (mountaineering) the descending of a rock face by means of an abseil Abu Dhabi Grand Prix (auto racing) the Formula One international Grand Prix held on the Yas Marina circuit, Abu Dhabi academy (equestrianism) a riding school acceptor (horse racing) a horse that has its entry for a race conrmed Accies (association football ) nickname of the Scottish club Hamilton Academicals accumulator (horse racing) a bet on four or more races, with the stake and winnings from each race laid on the next race, so that the punter either wins handsomely or loses everything accuracy jumping (parachuting) a jump made with the aim of landing on or near the center of a target laid out below ace (baseball ) a teams best starting pitcher; ( golf ) a hole in one; (squash, tennis) a serve that the receiver cannot touch acey-deucey (horse racing) colloquial term for a rider who sets his stirrups at different lengths [said to derive from AC/DC, alternating current/direct current] acro (skiing) a form of aerial [abbreviation of acrobatic] acrobat ( g ymnastics) a performer of acrobatics acrobatics ( g ymnastics) a routine of gymnastic feats across the board (horse racing) (of ) a bet that covers all possible results in a race, whether a win, a place or a show [the board is the noticeboard on which the races and odds are listed] 5 www.Atibook.ir advantage Albion penalty or to allow play to continue; (rugby union) a period of time allowed by the referee after an infringement to determine whether to award the opposing team a penalty, free kick, or scrum or to allow play to continue; (tennis) the rst point after deuce advantage court (tennis) the left side of the court, from which the serve is made and received at odd-numbered points advantage rule ( general ) a rule under which an infringement and its penalty are overlooked if this is to the advantage of the non-offending team adventure racing ( general ) a long and arduous race between individuals or teams over an open, varied course, typically including a mountain or river, with progress made either on foot (or by swimming) or by a form of transport, as by bicycle, by boat, or on horseback adventure sport ( general ) a sport played not in an enclosed area such as a eld but pursued in an open, natural environment such as water, snow, or air and potentially hazardous, so embracing all extreme sports and even such conventional sports as sailing and skiing aerial ( g ymnastics) (of ) a maneuver in which a complete turn is made in the air without touching the apparatus; (skateboarding) a trick performed in mid-ight, usually by launching the board off a ramp; (skiing) a maneuver such as an acro carried out in mid-air aerial contact ( general ) a contact in midair between two players, as in a ying tackle aerial ping-pong (sport) colloquial term for Australian Rules, where the frequent exchanges of high kicks in the air suggest the game of pingpong aerialist (skiing) a skier who performs gymnastic maneuvers in midair aero bars (cycling) extensions xed to the handlebars of a time-trial bike or track bike that allow the rider to lean further forward and so adopt an improved aerodynamic position aerobics ( g ymnastics) a system of rapid and strenuous exercises designed to increase tness and improve bodyshape [term coined in 1968 by U.S. physician Kenneth H. Cooper, from aerobic, requiring oxygen, with plural -s as in gymnastics] aet ( general ) abbreviation of after extra time AFC (American football) abbreviation of American Football Conference AFL (American football ) abbreviation of American Football League; (Australian Rules) abbreviation of Australian Football League African Games (Olympics) regional games held since 1965 for competitors from African countries 6 aft (sailing) at or toward the rear of a boat after extra time ( general ) (of ) a score when extra time has been added to the regular time against the darts (darts) (of ) a win scored even though the opposing player had the advantage of throwing rst against the head (rugby union) (of ) gaining the possession of the ball from a scrum to which the opposing team had the advantage of the put-in agricultural (cricket) (of ) a hefty or lofty stroke, as typically occurs in village cricket aid (equestrianism) a prompt of the hands or legs that the rider gives a horse to make it turn, change gait, or the like aid climbing (mountaineering) climbing with the assistance of special equipment such as crampons and ice axes aikido (sport) a Japanese martial art that uses specied moves and throws [Japanese ai, harmony, ki, breath, and do, way] aikidoka (aikido) a practitioner of aikido aiming mark (shooting) the center spot of a target Aintree (horse racing) the racecourse at Liverpool, England, where the Grand National is run air (basketball ) the distance between the ground and a players feet when shooting or jumping for the ball; (equestrianism) a staged or rehearsed movement in haute ộcole; (snowboarding, surng) an airborne maneuver air gun (shooting) a rie or pistol ring lead pellets by means of compressed air air hostess (cricket) colloquial term for a ball hit particularly high [as if able to bring down an air hostess in an airplane] air pistol (shooting) a pistol ring lead pellets by means of compressed air air rie (shooting) a rie ring lead pellets by means of compressed air air shot ( general ) a stroke that fails to connect with the ball, as typically in cricket or golf air sports (general ) a category of adventure sports, including, among others, gliding and parachuting airborne soccer (sport) a game similar to association football in which a Frisbee is substituted for the ball airborne throw (netball ) a throw made when a player is in the air albatross ( golf ) a score of three strokes under par on a hole [as a bird greater and more impressive than an eagle] Albiceleste (association football ) nickname of the Argentine national team [blend of Spanish albar, white, and celeste, sky blue, the colors of the stripes on the players shirts] Albion (archery) a round of 36 arrows each for men and women at 80, 60, and 50yds (73m, www.Atibook.ir 7 55m, and 46m); (association football ) (1) short name of the Scottish club Stirling Albion; (2) short name of the English club West Bromwich Albion alder (angling) an articial y that resembles the alder y allAmerican (American football ) a college football player in a team made up of the best such players at each position all-around ( g ymnastics) a competition in which the highest score from all events is combined to give an overall champion All Blacks (rugby union) nickname of the New Zealand international team [so dubbed for their dark strip by British journalists at the start of their tour of Britain in 1905] all-in wrestling (wrestling) a form of the sport with few restrictions on the permitted holds All-Ireland (Gaelic football, hurling) (of ) a nal between teams with players drawn from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland all-play-all ( general ) another term for a round robin all-pro (American football ) a professional player selected to play in the Pro Bowl as one of the best in his position all-rounder (cricket) a player who is equally competent as batsman and bowler all-seater stadium ( general ) a stadium with no accommodation for standing spectators all-star (baseball ) a player selected to represent his league in an All-Star game All-Star game (baseball ) an annual match between teams selected from the best players in the National League and the American League all-ticket match (general ) a match for which spectators must obtain tickets in advance all-weather (horse racing) (of ) a racecourse with a synthetic surface that allows racing to take place in any weather All Whites (association football ) nickname of the New Zealand national team [the color of the teams strip] alley (baseball ) a section of the outeld between two elders; (bowls) the long narrow enclosure where indoor bowls are played; (skittles) the area where the game is played; (tennis) the space between the tramlines at the side of the court; (tenpin bowling) the long narrow enclosure where the game is played alley-oop (basketball ) a maneuver in which the ball is thrown up high so that another player running toward the basket can catch it in midair and score; (skateboarding, snowboarding) a spin made in the opposite direction to that in which the boarder is traveling [probably French allez!, go! and a supposed French pronunciation of alder Anaheim up, inuenced by Alley Oop, a character created by U.S. cartoonist V.T. Hamlin in the 1930s] allez! ( fencing) the command given by the referee to start fencing [French allez!, go!] Allianz Arena ( general ) a leading sports stadium in Munich, Germany allowance (horse racing) a deduction from the weight that a horse carries Alpine skiing (skiing) a competitive form of the sport involving downhill and slalom events [originating in countries where the Alps form part of the territory, as France and Switzerland] also-ran (horse racing) a horse that ran a race but did not nish with a place amateur ( general ) a person who takes part in sport for pleasure, as distinct from a paid professional Amateur Athletic Association (athletics) the British national governing organization for athletics, founded in 1880 amble (equestrianism) a horses leisurely gait in which the legs on one side are lifted alternately with those on the other side American bowls (bowling) another name for tenpin bowling American football (sport) a form of football played with an oval ball between teams of 11 players, points being scored for touchdowns and goals American Football Conference (American football ) one of the two conferences into which the National Football League was divided in 1969, the other being the National Football Conference American Football League (American football ) the professional football organization formed in 1959 to rival the National Football League and merging with the latter in 1970 American League (baseball ) one of the two most prestigious North American professional leagues, formed in 1901 to rival the National League American tournament ( general ) another term for a round robin Americas Cup (sailing) the cup awarded to the winner of an international series of races held approximately every four years between one defending vessel and one challenging vessel [rst awarded by the Royal Yacht Squadron in 1851 to the U.S. schooner America, winner of a race around the Isle of Wight] amidships (sailing) in or toward the middle of the boat amplitude (snowboarding) the height of a jump or trick anabolic steroids ( general ) a drug that increases muscle size, illegally taken by some athletes or administered to racehorses Anaheim Stadium (baseball ) the California stadium www.Atibook.ir anchor Arc that is the home ground of the Anaheim Angels team anchor (athletics) the contestant who runs the anchor leg; (cricket) a batsman who can be relied on not to take risks; (tenpin bowling) the last bowler for the team, and generally the best; (tug of war) the person at the end of the rope, who digs in to steady those in front anchor cannon (billiards) a stroke in which the two object balls are kept close to the cushion so that a series of cannons can be made without disturbing their position anchor leg (athletics) the nal stage of a relay race anchorman ( general ) another name for an anchor Aneld (association football ) the home ground of the English club Liverpool Angels (baseball ) short name of the Anaheim Angels team angle (snooker) to position the cue ball so close to the corner of the cushion that it is difcult to hit it in a straight line toward the object ball; (squash) a shot that hits one of the side walls, then the front wall, before bouncing angle of split (croquet) the angle at which the balls diverge in a split croquet shot angled shot (table tennis) a sharp stroke that sends the ball away at an angle angler (angling) formal term for a person who shes angling (sport) the formal name for the sport or pastime of catching sh angulate (skiing) to bend the body, or part of the body, away from the slope in order to maintain balance ankle lace (wrestling) a hold in which a wrestler traps his opponent by the ankles, so that his back is to the mat Annies room (darts) a score of double one [from the World War I phrase up in Annies room as a dismissive reply to a query regarding the whereabouts of a person or thing, the number 1 being at the top of the dartboard] AN Other ( general ) a name inserted in a list of team members to represent a player yet to be announced [another spelled as if a personal name] ante-post (horse racing) a bet placed before the day of the race [before (ante) the runners have their numbers posted] apex (auto racing) the center point of a corner apparatus ( g ymnastics) the equipment, or piece of equipment, on which a gymnast performs appeal (cricket) a request from a elder to the umpire to establish whether the batsman is out or not appearance money ( general ) a fee paid to a famous player or performer to ensure his presence at a sporting event and so draw paying spectators appel ( fencing) (1) a stamp of the front foot in a 8 feint; (2) a sharp blow with the ộpộe, also as a feint [French appel, challenge] apprentice (horse racing) shortening of apprentice jockey apprentice jockey (horse racing) a junior jockey in at racing, entitled to ride but receiving tuition while working for a trainer approach ( golf ) shortening of approach shot approach shot ( golf ) a stroke by which a player puts, or attempts to put, a ball onto the green; (tennis) a long hit that enables a player to move up to the net approach work (association football ) a play that leads in the direction of the goal apron (auto racing) in Indy car and NASCAR racing, the paved portion of the racetrack that separates the racing surface from the ineld; (boxing) the part of a ring that extends beyond the ropes; ( golf ) the part of the fairway immediately in front of the green aquabatics (aquatics) a display of spectacular feats in or on the water [blend of Latin aqua, water, and acrobatics] aquaboard (general ) a board for riding on the surface of the water, as in surng aquabobbing (water skiing) a form of the sport using a vehicle like a tricycle but with skis instead of wheels [the vehicle bobs or bounces on the water] aquacade ( general ) a display of swimming or diving, usually accompanied by music [blend of Latin aqua, water, and cavalcade] aquadrome ( general ) a leisure facility for aquatic pursuits [blend of Latin aqua, water, and hippodrome] aquat (aquatics) a type of aerobics performed in water aqualung (aquatics) a self-contained diving apparatus with a supply of compressed air, the latter carried on the back aquanaut (aquatics) another term for a skindiver [blend of Latin aqua, water, and astronaut] aquaplane (water skiing) another term for a wakeboard aquarobics (aquatics) a system of exercises similar to aerobics, carried out to music in chest-high water [blend of Latin aqua, water, and aerobics] aquatic art (swimming) a rare alternate name for synchronized swimming aquatics (sport) sports practiced on or in the water, such as surng, swimming, and water polo Arabs (association football ) nickname for supporters of the Scottish club Dundee United [said to derive from the sand spread on the pitch in the winter of 1963 to make it playable for the cup tie against Albion Rovers] Arc (horse racing) short name of the Prix de lArc de Triomphe www.Atibook.ir 9 arch (athletics) the curve of the body of an athlete clearing the bar in the high jump archer (archery) a person who engages in archery archers bow (association football ) the posture of a player making a dive, differing from a genuine fall in that the perpetrator holds up both arms with open palms, thrusts out his chest, and bends his legs at the knee, suggesting the curve of a bow held by an archer archery (sport) the art of using bows to shoot arrows at a target archery darts (archery) a variety of the sport in which the target has the same arrangement as the numbers on a dartboard area (association football ) shortening of penalty area arena ( general ) the area enclosed by seating in which public sporting contests take place [Latin arena, sand, from the part of an ancient amphitheater that was strewn with sand for combats] Argentinian Grand Prix (auto racing) the Formula One international Grand Prix held on the circuit at Buenos Aires, Argentina Argonauts (Canadian football ) short name of the Toronto Argonauts team Argyle (association football ) short name of the English club Plymouth Argyle arm ( general ) the ability to throw arm ball (cricket) a delivery by a spin bowler that travels in the direction of the bowlers arm, instead of deviating from it, as is more usual arm throw (wrestling) a move in which the wrestler throws his opponent over his shoulder while holding him by the arm arm wrestling (wrestling) a form of the sport in which opponents sit facing each other at a table, rmly plant opposite elbows on the table, lock hands, and attempt to force each others arm back and down to the surface Armco (auto racing) proprietary name of the metal crash barriers on a racetrack formerly used to absorb the impact of cars and protect spectators [acronym of American Rolling Mill Company, the original manufacturers] armguard (cricket) a form of protection worn on the forearm by a batsman facing the bowler armhold (wrestling) a hold on an opponents arm armlock (wrestling) an armhold applied to an opponents elbow to gain a submission armstand (swimming) a handstand on the edge of a diving board held briey before the start of a dive around the horn (baseball ) (of ) a double play in which the ball is thrown from third base to second base to rst base, putting out runners at the latter two [from the image of a ship rounding Cape Horn, South America] arch assistant arrow (archery) the thin pointed missile shot from a bow to land on a target; (darts) colloquial term for a dart; (tenpin bowling) one of several lines marked on the lane to help guide the ball to the pins arrow-chucking (sport) colloquial term for darts arrowman (darts) colloquial term for a player of the game art of self-defense ( general ) a term originally applied to boxing but now to most of the martial arts Art Ross Trophy (ice hockey) the trophy awarded to the top point scorer at the end of the regular National Hockey League season [rst awarded in 1948 in honor of Art Ross, manager and coach of the Boston Bruins] articial y (angling) a y that imitates an insect, larva, or small sh artistic gymnastics (gymnastics) the principal form of the sport, performed on various pieces of apparatus, as distinct from rhythmic gymnastics artistic swimming (swimming) another term for synchronized swimming As (baseball ) nickname of the Oakland Athletics team ascender (mountaineering) a metal grip threaded on a rope as an aid in climbing ascham (archery) a tall cupboard for the storage of bows and arrows [named for Sir Roger Ascham (15151568), author of Toxophilus (1545), the rst English treatise on the sport] Ascot (horse racing) a at and National Hunt racecourse near Windsor, Berkshire, England, associated primarily with Royal Ascot Ascot Gold Cup (horse racing) the most prestigious race at Royal Ascot, rst run in 1807 Ashes (cricket) (1) a series of test matches between England and Australia; (2) the trophy awarded to the winner of the series [the trophy is in the form of a small urn, devised after the Australian victory of 1882 as a supposed receptacle of the ashes of English cricket but in reality said to contain the burned remains of a bail] ashitori (sumo) a move that brings ones opponent down by the leg [Japanese ashitori, leg-hold] Asian Games (Olympics) regional games held since 1951 for competitors from Asian countries assist (association football, ice hockey) a pass that leads to the scoring of a goal; (baseball ) a play that makes it possible for a batter or runner to be put out; (basketball ) a pass that allows a basket to be scored; (lacrosse) the last pass made before a goal is scored assistant referee (association football ) one of the two ofcials on either touchline who help the referee adjudicate the game by using a ag to indicate offsides, throw-ins, and corner kicks www.Atibook.ir 

English an essential grammar

1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 12111 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Introduction Grammar is the study of how words combine to form sentences. The following is a well-formed, ‘grammatical’ sentence: [1] John has been ill. Speakers of English can produce and understand a sentence like this without ever thinking about its grammar. Conversely, no speaker of English would ever produce a sentence like this: [2] *1ill John been has. This is an ill-formed, ‘ungrammatical’ sentence. But can you say why? The study of grammar provides us with the terminology we need to talk about language in an informed way. It enables us to analyse and to describe our own use of language, as well as that of other people. In writing, a knowledge of grammar enables us to evaluate the choices that are available to us during composition. Grammar rules Many people think of English grammar in terms of traditional rules, such as Never split an infinitive; Never end a sentence with a preposition. Specifically, these are prescriptive rules. They tell us nothing about how English is really used in everyday life. In fact, native speakers of English regularly split infinitives (to actually consider) and sentences often end with a preposition (Dr Brown is the man I’ll vote for.). 1 An asterisk is used throughout this book to indicate ungrammatical or incorrect examples, which are used to illustrate a point. 1 Introduction Prescriptive grammar reached its peak in the nineteenth century. In the twenty-first century, grammarians adopt a more descriptive approach. In the descriptive approach, the rules of grammar – the ones that concern us in this book – are the rules that we obey every time we speak, even if we are completely unaware of what they are. For instance, when we say John has been ill, we obey many grammar rules, including rules about: 1 Where to place the subject John – before the verb (᭤see 1.2) 2 Subject–verb agreement – John has, not John have (᭤see 1.3) 3 Verb forms – been, not being (᭤see 2.3.1) These are descriptive rules. The task of the modern grammarian is to discover and then to describe the rules by which a language actually works. In order to do this, grammarians now use computer technology to help them analyse very large collections of naturally occurring language, taken from a wide variety of sources, including conversations, lectures, broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, letters and books. Standard English Standard English is the variety of English which carries the greatest social prestige in a speech community. In Britain, there is a standard British English, in the United States, there is a standard American English, in Australia, a standard Australian English, and so on. In each country, the national standard is that variety which is used in public institutions, including government, education, the judiciary and the media. It is used on national television and radio, and in newspapers, books and magazines. The standard variety is the only variety which has a standardized spelling. As a result, the national standard has the widest currency as a means of communication, in contrast with regional varieties, which have a more limited currency. The following sentence is an example of standard English: I was ill last week. 2 The following sentence is non-standard: 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 12111 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 I were ill last week. The non-standard past-tense construction I were is commonly used in several regional varieties, especially in parts of England. Regional varieties are associated with particular regions. The standard variety is not geographically bound in the same way. Standard English Using standard English involves making choices of grammar, vocabulary and spelling. It has nothing to do with accent. The sentence I was ill last week is standard English whether it is spoken with a Birmingham accent, a Glasgow accent, a Cockney accent, a Newcastle accent, or any other of the many accents in Britain today. Similarly, standard American English (sometimes called ‘General American’) is used throughout the United States, from San Francisco to New York, from New Orleans to the Great Lakes. In both countries, the standard variety co-exists with a very large number of regional varieties. In fact, most educated people use both their own regional variety and the standard variety, and they can switch effortlessly between the two. They speak both varieties with the same accent. No variety of English – including standard English – is inherently better or worse than any other. However, the standard variety is the one that has the greatest value in social terms as a means of communication, especially for public and professional communication. The notion of standard English is especially important to learners of the language. Because of its high social value, learners are justifiably anxious to ensure that the English they learn is standard English. English as a world language Conservative estimates put the total number of English speakers throughout the world at around 800 million. English is the mother tongue of an estimated 350 million people in the countries listed overleaf. In addition to these countries, English is an official language, or has special status, in over sixty countries worldwide, including Cameroon, Ghana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Pakistan, the Philippines and Singapore. This means that English is used in these countries in many public functions, including government, the judiciary, the press and broadcasting. Even in countries where it has no official status, such as China 3 Introduction Approximate number of mother-tongue English speakers, in millions United States 216 Great Britain 53 Canada 17 Australia 14 New Zealand 4 Ireland 3.5 South Africa 2 and Japan, English has a central place in school curricula, because its value in international communication and trade is unquestioned. The spread of English around the world was one of the most significant linguistic developments of the twentieth century. That century also witnessed another important development: the decline of British English and the rise of American English as the dominant variety. British English and American English 4 Linguistic influence follows closely on political and economic influence. For several centuries, British English was the dominant variety throughout the world, because Britain was the centre of a vast empire that straddled the globe. In the twentieth century, political power shifted dramatically away from Britain, and the United States is now both politically and economically the most powerful country in the world. It is not surprising then that American English has become the dominant variety, although the traditional influence of British English remains strong. In recent years, the worldwide influence of American English has been greatly strength- 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 12111 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 ened by the mass media and the entertainment industry. American news channels such as CNN and NBC are transmitted around the world by satellite, and American films and television shows are seen on every continent. The language of the Internet is overwhelmingly American English. British English and American English The differences between American English and British English are for the most part fairly superficial. Perhaps the most familiar differences are in vocabulary: British English American English autumn fall film movie flat apartment holiday vacation lift elevator nappy diaper number plate license plate petrol gas post code zip code rubbish trash shop store tap faucet taxi cab trainers sneakers 5 

English for academic research writing exercises

Contents 1 Punctuation and spelling........................................................... 1.1 commas: reducing number of ............................................. 1.2 commas: adding ................................................................. 1.3 semicolons: replacing ......................................................... 1.4 brackets: removing ............................................................. 1.5 hyphens: adding ................................................................. 1.6 hyphens: deciding where needed ....................................... 1.7 initial capitalization: in titles ................................................ 1.8 initial capitalization: in main text ......................................... 1.9 various punctuation issues: 1 ............................................. 1.10 various punctuation issues: 2 ............................................. 1.11 spelling ............................................................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 Word order .................................................................................. 2.1 choosing the best subject to put at the beginning of the phrase ...................................................................... 2.2 putting the key words first ................................................... 2.3 avoiding beginning the sentence with it is: 1 ...................... 2.4 avoiding beginning the sentence with it is: 2 ...................... 2.5 choosing the best word order to help the reader: 1 ............ 2.6 choosing the best word order to help the reader: 2 ............ 2.7 choosing the best word order to help the reader: 3 ............ 2.8 shifting the parts of the phrase to achieve optimal order: 1 .................................................................. 2.9 shifting the parts of the phrase to achieve optimal order: 2 .................................................................. 2.10 shifting the parts of the phrase to achieve optimal order: 3 .................................................................. 2.11 shifting the parts of the phrase to achieve optimal order: 4 .................................................................. 13 14 16 17 18 19 22 24 25 26 28 29 xi xii Contents 2.12 reducing the number of commas and parts of the sentence ................................................................... putting sentences into the correct order ............................. typical mistakes .................................................................. 30 31 32 3 Writing short sentences and paragraphs ................................ 3.1 dividing up long sentences: 1 ............................................. 3.2 dividing up long sentences: 2 ............................................. 3.3 dividing up long paragraphs 1 ............................................ 3.4 dividing up long paragraphs 2 ............................................ 3.5 dividing up long paragraphs 3 ............................................ 3.6 dividing up long paragraphs 4 ............................................ 3.7 putting paragraphs into their most logical order ................. 3.8 writing short sentences: 1................................................... 3.9 writing short sentences: 2................................................... 3.10 writing short sentences: 3................................................... 33 34 36 38 40 42 43 45 46 46 46 4 Link words: connecting phrases and sentences together ..... 4.1 linking sentences and paragraphs ...................................... 4.2 deleting unnecessary link words ........................................ 4.3 deciding when link words are necessary ............................ 4.4 choosing best link word ...................................................... 4.5 reducing the length of link words / phrases ........................ 4.6 shifting the position of link words expressing consequences .................................................................... 4.7 using link words to give additional neutral information ....... 4.8 using link words to give additional positive information ...... 4.9 using link words to give additional negative information..... 4.10 making contrasts ................................................................ 4.11 making evaluations ............................................................. 4.12 connecting sentences by repetition of key word or a derivation of the key word ........................................... 4.13 describing processes ......................................................... 4.14 describing causes .............................................................. 4.15 describing effects and consequences ................................ 4.16 making contrasts, concessions, qualifications, reservations, rejections ...................................................... 4.17 outlining solutions to problems ........................................... 4.18 outlining a time sequence................................................... 4.19 explaining figures and tables: making comparisons ........... 4.20 making evaluations and drawing conclusions: 1 ................. 4.21 making evaluations and drawing conclusions: 2 ................. 47 48 49 50 51 52 62 63 65 66 67 67 Being concise and removing redundancy ............................... 5.1 removing individual redundant words ................................. 5.2 removing several redundant words: 1 ................................. 5.3 removing several redundant words: 2 ................................. 69 70 71 73 2.13 2.14 5 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 61 Contents 5.4 5.5 reducing the word count: titles ............................................ replacing several words with one preposition or adverb ............................................................................ replacing several words with one adverb............................ replacing several words with one word ............................... replacing a verb + noun construction with a single verb: 1 ................................................................... identifying verb and noun clauses ...................................... replacing a verb + noun construction with a single verb: 2 ................................................................... replacing a noun phrase with a verb or can: 1 .................... replacing a noun phrase with a verb or can: 2 .................... replacing nouns with verbs in titles of papers ..................... identifying whether link words could be deleted ................. deleting unnecessary link words: 1 .................................... deleting unnecessary link words: 2 .................................... deleting unnecessary link words: 3 .................................... unnecessary use of we and one: 1 .................................... unnecessary use of we and one: 2 .................................... avoiding redundancy in introductory phrases ..................... avoiding redundancy in references to figures, tables etc. ........................................................................... rewriting unnecessarily long sentences: 1 .......................... rewriting unnecessarily long sentences: 2 .......................... rewriting unnecessarily long sentences: 3 .......................... reducing length of an abstract ............................................ reducing length of an introduction ...................................... reducing the length of the outline of the structure .............. reducing the length of the review of the literature: 1 ........... reducing the length of the review of the literature: 2 ........... reducing the length of the materials and methods ............. reducing the length of the conclusions section................... reducing the length of the acknowledgements ................... 92 93 94 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 102 103 Ambiguity and political correctness ........................................ 6.1 repetition of words to aid reader’s understanding: 1 ........... 6.2 repetition of words to aid reader’s understanding: 2 ........... 6.3 avoiding ambiguity due to use of -ing form: 1 ..................... 6.4 avoiding ambiguity due to use of -ing form: 2 ..................... 6.5 disambiguating sentences: 1 .............................................. 6.6 disambiguating sentences: 2 .............................................. 6.7 pronouns and political correctness ..................................... 6.8 non-use of masculine terms for generic situations: 1 ......... 6.9 non-use of masculine terms for generic situations: 2 ......... 6.10 non-use of masculine terms for generic situations: 3 ......... 105 106 107 108 109 110 112 113 114 115 115 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 6 xiii 75 76 77 78 79 80 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 xiv 7 8 Contents Paraphrasing and avoiding plagiarism .................................... 7.1 deciding what is acceptable to cut and paste ..................... 7.2 quoting statistics ................................................................. 7.3 paraphrasing by changing the parts of speech .................. 7.4 paraphrasing by changing nouns into verbs ....................... 7.5 paraphrasing by changing the parts of speech and word order: 1 ............................................................... 7.6 paraphrasing by changing the parts of speech and word order: 2 ............................................................... 7.7 finding synonyms: verbs 1 .................................................. 7.8 finding synonyms: verbs 2 .................................................. 7.9 finding synonyms: verbs 3 .................................................. 7.10 finding synonyms: nouns 1 ................................................. 7.11 finding synonyms: nouns 2 ................................................. 7.12 finding synonyms: adjectives .............................................. 7.13 finding synonyms: adverbs and prepositions 1 ................... 7.14 finding synonyms: adverbs and prepositions 2 ................... 7.15 paraphrasing by changing word order ................................ 7.16 replacing we with the passive form..................................... 7.17 making a summary: 1 ......................................................... 7.18 making a summary: 2 ......................................................... 7.19 making a summary: 3 ......................................................... 7.20 making a summary: 4 ......................................................... Defining, comparing, evaluating and highlighting .................. 8.1 writing definitions 1 ............................................................. 8.2 writing definitions 2 ............................................................. 8.3 writing definitions 3 ............................................................. 8.4 making generalizations....................................................... 8.5 confirming other authors’ evidence..................................... 8.6 stating how a finding is important ....................................... 8.7 highlighting why your method, findings, results etc. are important ...................................................................... 8.8 highlighting your findings .................................................... 8.9 comparing the literature...................................................... 8.10 comparing contrasting views .............................................. 8.11 comparing your methodology with other authors’ methodologies .................................................................... 8.12 comparing data in a table ................................................... 8.13 questioning current thinking ............................................... 8.14 evaluating solutions ............................................................ 117 118 119 120 121 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 136 137 138 138 139 140 141 141 142 143 144 146 147 148 151 152 153 154 155 Contents 9 Anticipating possible objections, indicating level of certainty, discussing limitations, hedging, future work .......................... 9.1 anticipating objections and alternative views.................... 9.2 indicating level of certainty 1 ............................................ 9.3 indicating level of certainty 2 ............................................ 9.4 reducing level of certainty ................................................. 9.5 discussing the limitations of the current state of the art ........................................................................... 9.6 qualifying what you say .................................................... 9.7 dealing with limitations in your own results: 1 ................... 9.8 dealing with limitations in your own results: 2 ................... 9.9 dealing with limitations in your own results: 3 ................... 9.10 toning down the strength of an affirmation: 1 ................... 9.11 toning down the strength of an affirmation: 2 ................... 9.12 toning down the strength of an affirmation: 3 ................... 9.13 toning down the strength of an affirmation: 4 ................... 9.14 direct versus hedged statements 1................................... 9.15 direct versus hedged statements 2................................... 9.16 discussing possible applications and future work ............. 10 Writing each section of a paper ................................................ 10.1 abstracts ........................................................................... 10.2 introductions ..................................................................... 10.3 creating variety when outlining the structure of the paper ...................................................................... 10.4 outlining the structure of the paper ................................... 10.5 survey of the literature ...................................................... 10.6 methodology / experimental ............................................. 10.7 results ............................................................................... 10.8 discussion: 1 ..................................................................... 10.9 discussion: 2 ..................................................................... 10.10 differentiating between the abstract and the conclusions: 1 ...................................................... 10.11 differentiating between the abstract and the conclusions: 2 ...................................................... 10.12 conclusions: 1 ................................................................... 10.13 conclusions: 2 ................................................................... 10.14 acknowledgements: 1 ....................................................... 10.15 acknowledgements: 2 ....................................................... xv 157 158 159 160 161 162 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 173 175 176 177 177 178 178 179 180 180 181 182 183 184 184 185 185 Acknowledgements ........................................................................... 187 About the Author ............................................................................... 187 Editing Service for non-native researchers / Mentorship for EAP and EFL teachers ......................................................... 187 Index ................................................................................................... 189 

English in the southern united states

x Contents 8 Vowel shifting in the southern states   126 9 Enclave dialect communities in the South   141 10 Urbanization and the evolution of Southern American English      159 11 The Englishes of southern Louisiana   173 12 Features and uses of southern style   189 References Index 208 233 Notes on the contributors John Algeo is Professor Emeritus at the University of Georgia. He is the author, co-author, or editor of several books including the third, fourth, and fifth editions of The Origins and Development of the English Language (with Thomas Pyles) and volume 6 of the Cambridge History of the English Language. He has been a Fulbright Research Fellow and a Guggenheim Fellow at the University of London and was Editor of American Speech for ten years. He is a Past-President of the American Dialect Society. Guy Bailey is Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs at the University of Texas – San Antonio. He is the author, co-author, or co-editor of nine books and monographs, including African-American English: Structure, History and Use (1998, with Salikoko S. Mufwene, John R. Rickford, and John Baugh) and has been author or co-author of over sixty journal articles on African-American Vernacular English, Southern English, creole Englishes, sociolinguistics, and dialectology Cynthia Goldin Bernstein is Professor of English at the University of Memphis. She is the author of articles in American Speech, Journal of English Linguistics, SECOL Review, editor or co-editor of three books including Language Variety in the South Revisited (1997, with Thomas Nunnally and Robin Sabino) and Windows on Southern Speech (in progress). Her articles and book chapters cover both linguistic and literary topics. Patricia Cukor-Avila is Associate Professor of English at the University of North Texas. She is co-editor of The Emergence of Black English: Texts and Commentary (1991, with Guy Bailey and Natalie Maynor). In addition to her articles on sociolinguistics, she has written articles and given conference presentations on bilingualism and language acquisition. George T. Dorrill is Associate Professor of English at Southeastern Louisiana University. He is the author of Black and White Speech in the Southern United States: Evidence from the Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States (1987) and of several articles on the phonology of southern speech. He is a xi xii Notes on the contributors former assistant editor of the Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States and is co-author of articles during the early stages (1970s) of compilation and publication of fieldwork for that project. Connie Eble is Professor of English at the University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill and has been Editor of American Speech, quarterly journal of the American Dialect Society since 1996. She published Slang and Sociability: InGroup Language Among College Students (1996) and is the leading authority on college slang in the United States. Crawford Feagin was mostly recently Visiting Professor at the University of Zurich and was a Fulbright Professor at the University of Klagenfurt (Austria). She is the co-editor or author of five books including Towards a Social Science of Language: I Variation and Change in Language and II: Social Interaction and Discourse Structure (1996, 1997, with Gregory Guy, Deborah Schiffrin, and John Baugh), and Development and Diversity: Linguistic Variation across Time and Space (1990, with Jerold A. Edmondson and Peter M¨uhlha¨usler). Barbara Johnstone is Professor of English and Rhetoric at Carnegie Mellon University. She works at the interdisciplinary intersection of discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, and critical theory and is the author of five books including Qualitative Methods in Sociolinguistics (2000), The Linguistic Individual (1996), and Stories, Community, and Place (1990). She is also the author of a book on Arabic discourse and has written numerous research articles and book chapters about narrative, repetition, self-expression and regional variation. Salikoko S. Mufwene is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Chicago. He has held visiting professorships at the Universit´e de Lyon III, the University of the West Indies, the National University of Singapore, and Harvard University. He is the author of The Ecology of Language Evolution (2001), co-author of Creolization of Language and Culture (2001, with Robert Chaudenson – main author); and editor of Africanisms in Afro-American Language (1993), Topics in African Linguistics (1993, with Lioba Moshi); and African-American English: Structure, History, and Use (1998, with John R. Rickford, Guy Bailey, and John Baugh). Edgar W. Schneider is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Regensburg, Germany, after previous appointments in Bamberg, Georgia, and Berlin. He has written and edited several books (including American Earlier Black English, 1989; Introduction to Quantitative Analysis of Linguistic Survey Data, 1996; Focus on the USA, 1996; Englishes Around the World, 1997; Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages, 2000) and has published widely on the dialectology, sociolinguistics, history, semantics, and varieties of English. Jan Tillery is Associate Professor of English at the University of Texas – San Antonio. She is the author or co-author of articles on southern speech and the methodology of sociolinguistics including “The nationalization of a southernism” (2000, with Guy Bailey, Journal of English Linguistics) and “The Rutledge Notes on the contributors xiii effect: the impact of interviewers of survey results in linguistics” (1999, with Guy Bailey, American Speech). Walt Wolfram is William C. Friday Distinguished Professor at North Carolina State University. He has pioneered research on a wide range of American vernacular dialects, including many southern varieties, and has authored or co-authored sixteen books including American English: Dialects and Variation (1998), Language Variation in School and Community (1999), and a seminal descriptive linguistic book on African-American Vernacular English: A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech (1969). He is the author of over two hundred articles on a broad range of sociolinguistic topics. Laura Wright is Lecturer in English Language at the University of Cambridge, and works on the history of English from documentary sources, particularly the history of the London dialect. In 2000 she published an edited volume (The Development of Standard English 1300–1800: Theories, Descriptions, Conflicts) reopening the question of how standard English came about. Most recently Wright has been transcribing sixteenth-century testimonies from London’s Bridewell, from whence speakers were transported to Virginia and the Caribbean plantations, and eighteenth-century documents from the island of St. Helena, which contain testimonies from both the white employees of the East India Company who lived there, and their black slaves. Acknowledgments The editors gratefully acknowledge Coastal Carolina University’s support of this project through the Thomas W. and Robin W. Edwards College of Humanities and Fine Arts, especially the encouragement and resources of Charles Joyner, director of the Waccamaw Center for Cultural and Historical Studies. We also appreciate the able and willing assistance of Geoffrey Parsons, Patricia Bennett, and Lori Ard in the University’s Office of International Programs, whose friendship, expertise, and technology eased our way in producing a final, edited version of this manuscript. We are indebted to the Southeastern Conference on Linguistics (SECOL), which has provided and continues to provide a fertile ground for the exploration of all aspects of Southern English. The idea for this volume emerged during discussions at a SECOL conference; all of the people involved in the writing and editing of this book have contributed significantly to that organization and have gained much from its conferences and publications. Special thanks to SECOL members Thomas Nunnally, Greta Little, and Connie Eble who provided advice in the early stages of this project. It has been a pleasure to work with Katharina Brett, Senior Commissioning Editor in Language and Linguistics at Cambridge University Press. She is remarkably effective and efficient, and this volume has profited from her suggestions and keen insights. Above all, we’d like to thank the authors for their enthusiastic response to the invitation to write a chapter for this book, for their carefully considered contributions, and for their invaluable and timely editorial advice at each stage of the process. It has truly been a privilege to be in partnership with this fine group of linguists, scholars, and writers. The publisher has used its best endeavors to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate. xiv Introduction The English of the southern United States may be the most studied regional variety of any language. Though there has been no comprehensive bibliography on the topic since Michael Montgomery and James McMillan’s (1989) admirable annotated compilation with over 3,500 entries, it is safe to say that the number of articles, monographs, and books on Southern English approaches or exceeds 4,000, with no abatement in sight. What is the allure of this variety of English? Perhaps its rich internal diversity, perhaps its distinctiveness among regional varieties in the United States, perhaps the folkloric appeal of southern culture in general. Whatever attracts so many to Southern English, Michael Montgomery stands in the vanguard of the myriad scholars who have explored the language and culture of the South. Michael is the quintessential linguist. As author, collaborator, corpus linguist, editor, field researcher, lexicographer, mentor, writer and recipient of grants, he has set a standard for leadership and achievement as a scholar. References in the ensuing chapters to over thirty of his works are not for honorific purposes; his imprint is found in virtually every research area within the study of Southern English. Inspired by Michael Montgomery’s life and work, the authors and editors of English in the Southern United States have undertaken the challenge of creating a volume to capture the past and present of Southern English, to bring our field of research to an even broader community, and to serve as a small platform for launching future research in southern studies. We have endeavored to enrich the climate of ongoing and future inquiry by exploring central themes, issues, and topics in the study of Southern English. Throughout the volume, previous and new data on iconic linguistic features and cultural origins of this diverse regional variety are investigated. Finally, an extensive bibliography provides an additional resource to facilitate further research. Since this is, then, both an upto-date scholarly text and an introduction (and invitation) to the field, we have organized the contributions in chapters which stand independently but are also arranged in a sequence that might prove useful for instructional purposes. John Algeo opens the volume with an outline of the principal cultural elements of the linguistic heredity of the southern United States. He first, however, 1 

English meaning and culture

This page intentionally left blank part i MEANING, HISTORY, AND CULTURE This page intentionally left blank Chapter 1 English as a Cultural Universe 1.1. Englishthe Most Widely Used Language in the World Few would now disagree with the view expressed in Quirk et al.s (1985, 2) Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language that English is the worlds most important language. It is certainly the worlds most widely used language. As David Crystal noted more than a decade ago in his Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages (1992, 121), it is spoken by a large and ever-increasing number of people 800,000,000 by a conservative estimate, 1,500,000,000 by a liberal estimate. . . . It has official status in over 60 countries. Estimates also suggest that at least 150 million people use English fluently as a foreign language, and three or four times this number with some degree of competence. . . . English is also the language of international air traffic control, and the chief language of world publishing, science and technology. Crystals more recent estimates are even higher (Crystal 2001, 2003a, 2003b). In the words of the Indian American linguist Braj Kachru (1997, 69), the hunger for learning the languagewith whatever degree of competenceis simply insatiable. Given the rapidly expanding role of English in the contemporary world, it is hardly surprising that numerous books concerned with different aspects of English, both scholarly and pedagogical, are published every year. And yet there is one striking gap in this literature: although many books have been and are being published that link the Japanese language with Japanese culture or Chinese language with Chinese culture, hardly any recent books explore the links between the English language and Anglo culture. There are, no doubt, many reasons for this weakness within the huge literature dealing with English. I believe one of them is that in recent times considerable opposition has developed in the English-speaking world to the notion of a culture, that is, culture in the singular, an opposition linked with fears of essentialism and stereotyping. 3 4 Meaning, History, and Culture Although the notion of Japanese culture may be frowned on, it does not usually evoke a reaction as suspicious, or even hostile, as the notion of Anglo culture. No doubt this is partly because the Japanese language is spoken mostly in one region, whereas English is widely spoken in many different parts of the world. The question to whom does this language belong? posed recently (with respect to German) by the German Arab writer of Moroccan origin, Abdellatif Belfellah (1996), raises more problems in the case of English than, for example, in the case of Japanese (or indeed German), and it reverberates throughout the literature on English and Englishes (e.g., Hayhow and Parker 1994; Widdowson 1994). The very fact that the use of English is so widespread, and that its role in the modern world is so all-embracing, means that trying to link it with any particular culture or way of living, thinking, or feeling seems all the more problematic. From the point of view of people in the postcolonial world, for whom the local variety of English is often their native language or the main language used outside the domestic sphere, discussions of the links between English and Anglo culture may even seem offensive or at least insensitive. From the point of view of Anglo Celtic speakers of Englishin Britain, the United States, and elsewherediscussions of possible links between English and Anglo culture may also seem to be best avoided. Quirk et al. (1985, 16), for example, emphasize the cultural neutrality of English: English, which we have referred to as a lingua franca, is pre-eminently the most international of languages. Though the mention of the language may at once remind us of England, on the one hand, or cause association with the might of the United States on the other, it carries less implication of political or cultural specificity than any other living tongue. The authors do not deny the English language any cultural underpinning altogether: But the cultural neutrality of English must not be pressed too far. The literal or metaphorical use of such expressions as case law throughout the English-speaking world reflects a common heritage in our legal system; and allusions to or quotations from Shakespeare, the Authorized Version, Grays Elegy, Mark Twain, a sea shanty, a Negro spiritual or a Beatles songwittingly or nottestify similarly to a shared culture. The Continent means continental Europe as readily in America and even Australia and New Zealand as it does in Britain. At other times, English equally reflects the independent and distinct culture of one or the other of the English-speaking communities. (Quirk et al. 1985, 16) If English, which may remind us of England, nonetheless equally reflects the culture of numerous other communities, then the notion of a shared culture would seem to require some further discussion. But the subject is not mentioned again in that book. Crystals (2003b) influential recent books on the subject do not dwell on the issue of language and culture either. For example, his Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2003a), after noting that English is now the dominant or official language in over 75 territories (rather than 60, as in Crystal 1992), goes on to comment: With over 60 political and cultural histories to consider, it is difficult to find safe generalizations about the range of social functions with which English has come to be identified. General statements about the structure of the language are somewhat easier to make (Crystal 2003a, 106). English as a Cultural Universe 5 Clearly, if it is difficult to find safe generalizations about the social functions of English, the same applies to its cultural underpinnings, which are not discussed in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language any further. It is understandable that more than sixty cultural histories cant be all discussed at length in a one-volume encyclopedia. But the question still suggests itself: what about the shared culture mentioned, for example, by Quirk et al.s A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985)? The founder of modern general linguistics, Wilhelm von Humboldt, affirmed that there resides in every language a characteristic world-view . . . every language contains the whole conceptual fabric and mode of presentation of a portion of mankind (1988, 60). Although Humboldts language may now seem dated, twentieth-century language-and-culture studies have not undermined this viewquite the contrary. Should we now modify Humboldt to say every language but English? Because English, unlike other languages, is neutrala purely functional international language free from the baggage of any particular history and tradition? Or perhaps because English is so diversified that while sixty or more different traditions may be reflected in it there isnt any one tradition that provides some sort of shared conceptual fabric (in Humboldts sense)? With the growing importance of English in the contemporary world, there is an increasing urgency to the question of whether there is an irreconcilable conflict between, on the one hand, the view that English is shared by people belonging to many different cultural traditions and, on the other, the notion that English itself like any other languageis likely to have certain cultural assumptions and values embedded in it. The position taken in this book is that while there are many Englishes around the world (all of them worthy of recognition, appreciation, and study), there is also an Anglo Englishan English of the inner circle (Kachru 1985, 1992), including the traditional bases of English, where it is the primary language: . . . the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand (Crystal 2003b, 60) and that this Anglo English is not a cultural tabula rasa. 1.2. English and Englishes As the provocative title of Tom McArthurs The English Languages (1998) indicates, the word English (in the singular) and the phrase the English language have for many commentators become problematic. With the expansion of English worldwide came its diversification, and so many different varieties of English are now used in the world that the propriety of the term English itself is increasingly called into question. For millions of ordinary people, however, especially those who have their hearts set on learning English or having their children learn English, the news that according to some language professionals English does not exist any more is unlikely to be of much interest. On the other hand, the notion that there are many varieties of English and that in some contexts it may be appropriate to use the term English with a modifier can be relevant outside academic circles. The distinction between, for example, British English and American English is widely accepted as useful.1 

Interesting stories to learn proverbs

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